Journal Review 3

1. Title : Context, register and genre: Implications for language education

2. Author: Débora Figueiredo, Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina Brasil

3 Journal: Número Especial Monográfico Nº 1

4. Publication: Revista Signos 2010

5. Abstract:

    This paper explores, from a systemic functional linguistics perspective, the relation among the concepts of ‘context’, ‘register’ (Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Halli-day, 2004) ‘genre’ (Martin, 1992, 1997, 2000) and language education. The reason for exploring these concepts is their connection with two notions that have a direct bear-ing on language teaching/learning: the appropriateness of linguistic forms to achieve specific communicative purposes (linked to the paradigm of analysing language in use) and the relation between text and context. To illustrate and apply the SFL theoreti-cal and analytical resources presented, an exemplar of a reader’s letter published by Newsweek magazine is analysed. It is suggested that a functional perspective on lan-guage teaching/learning helps students build systematic links between contextual and linguistic parameters when using language, a goal which is facilitated by SFL’s view of language as “sets of related choices or options, each of which is called a system” (Painter, 2001: 176). In other words, the notions of register and genre can be used to make students aware of the sociocultural features of the text-type that is being taught and of which linguistic choices are more likely to be made in its textualization, as well as to help teachers “to identify and focus on whatever aspect of language in use the learner needs most help with” (Painter, 2001: 178).

6. Goals:

    The aim of this paper is to explore, from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics (SFL), the relation between the concepts of ‘context’, ‘register’ (Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Halliday, 2004) genre (Martin, 1992, 1997, 2000) and language education. The reason for exploring these concepts is their connection with two notions that have a direct bearing on language teaching/learning: the appropriateness of linguistic forms to achieve specific communicative purposes (linked to the paradigm of analysing language in use) and the relation between text and context.

In pedagogical terms, the goal is to present and discuss theoretical and analytical resources produced within a discursive-functional perspective that may be used to ground the work with genres (including the issues of text production and reception), both by EFL/ESL1 teachers and students and by language researchers.

7. Problem:

    The problem which is the main reason for exploring these concepts is their connection with two notions that have a direct bearing on language teaching/learning: the appropriateness of linguistic forms to achieve specific communicative purposes (linked to the paradigm of analysing language in use) and the relation between text and context.

8. Theories:

    a.  Systemic functional linguistics and language education.

          Systemic functional linguistics (SFL), developed by Halliday (1978), is both a theory of language and a methodology for analysing texts and their contexts of use. Due to its dual nature, SFL aims to explain how individuals use language and how language is structured for its different usages (Eggins, 1994). By adopting a multifunctional view of language, that is, that language is as it is to accomplish certain social functions, SFL divides the meanings realized by language into three types: ‘ideational’, ‘interpersonal’ and ‘textual’ meanings. According to this per-spective, language is seen as ‘systemic’ because it consists of a set of choice systems, in which each system provides the speaker/writer with a variety of ways to express their intended meaning, and it is ‘functional’ because it serves functional purposes. The functional aspects of language are simultaneously expressed in the three types of meaning mentioned above.
Ideational meanings are related to the way language is used to represent our experiences of the physical, the psychological and the social world. These meanings are realized through the ‘system of transitivity’, which is represented by ‘a process’ (realized by a verbal group), ‘the participants’ involved (realized by nominal groups) and their ‘circunstances’ (usually realized by adverbial groups). ‘Interpersonal meanings’ are realized by the ‘systems of mood’ and ‘modality’. Mood is related to the exchange of information and of goods and services. Modality, on the other hand, is the relationship established between the text’s author and her/his representations
‘Textual meanings’ have to do with the way the text is organized in relation to its context and its message. The clause seen as a message projects textual meanings through the ‘system of Theme/Rheme’, which is related to the message’s point of departure (Theme) and its continuity (Rheme) in the clauses’ syntactic organization. A textual analysis based on the systemic-functional approach points out micro-textual evidence of specific social practices, allowing the discourse analyst, among other things, to uncover the hidden interests of writers/speakers and of their texts. According to Lock (1996), in terms of language education, the systemic functional perspective does not focus on the distinction between grammatical and ungrammatical linguistic forms, but rather on the appropriateness of each lexico-gramatical choice for a particular communicative purpose in a particular social context. As the author points out, “the primary concern [of systemic functional linguistics] is with the functions of structures and their constituents and with their meanings in context” (Lock, 1996: 1). Learning a second or foreign language involves a considerable amount of time and dedication, and the learners expect, as a payoff from their efforts, to develop the ability to communicate effectively with other speakers or writers of the new language. To do so, learners need a grammatical description of the language that goes beyond listing forms and structures and includes a description of the available linguistic resources and of how they are used in social interactions. Systemic functional linguistics is particularly adequate for such a task since it conceives: “The grammar of a language as a resource for making and exchanging meanings. A functional grammar is therefore the kind of grammar most likely to have useful things to say to language learners and teachers” (Lock, 1996: 3).

      a.1 The notion of ‘context’ in language teaching/learning

             From a systemic point of view, language can only be understood in relation to its environment of use, and this premise is particularly evident in the language classroom, where both spoken and written texts should not be interpreted in isolation from their contexts of production and circulation. According to SFL, the environment of language seen as texts −specific texts and their component parts− is the context of situation, whereas the environment of language seen as a system −its lexical items and grammatical categories− is the context of culture (Halliday, 1978). The main contention in SFL is that the contextual and linguistic elements of a text are in a systemic relationship to one another. Choices in the distinct metafunctions ‘create’ the con-text of a text, at the same time that the register elements activate different areas of semantics and grammar. Halliday (1978) argues for the importance of the context in language education based on the unique role played by language in the learning process, in which language functions as ‘substance’ (learning a language, be it L1 or a foreign language), as ‘instrument’ (learning through language, which applies to all fields of knowledge and to all educational levels), and as ‘object’ (learning about language: grammar, genres, registers, word formation, etc.). In Halliday’s (1978: 1) words: “If the context is theorized in linguistic terms as another stratum in the organization of language itself, this enables us to model its variation and complexity, taking account of the differing situational contexts for different levels and kinds of teaching/learning activities, as well as the processes and the institutions of education and the different cultures within which this are located.”

        a.2. The context of situation.

               In second/foreign language classes, the issue of context is a particularly complex one, since the general feeling is that, in a classroom, language functions somehow out of its ‘natural’, ‘real’ enviroments of use, such as was the case in traditional methods of language teaching. Before the emergence of communicative approaches to second/foreign language education, traditional textbooks relied on single sentences or even words presented in isolation, out of context. Even the ‘situational approach, developed in the 1950s and 1960s (Hornby, 1954; Frisby, 1957; Pittman, 1963) as a result of an interest of certain linguists in the role of context, and which tried to present texts and activities within recognizable situational settings (e.g. ‘at the post office’, ‘at the airport’, ‘at the restaurant’), made use of ‘ready-made’ sentences, contrary to “the basic notion of [language] functioning in a context of situation” (Halliday, 1978: 10).
However, from a social perspective of language use and language teaching/learning, the main problem with this pre-communicative approach was the fact that it equated context with setting. As Halliday (1978: 10) points out, “the context of situation is a theoretical construct for explaining how a text relates to the social processes within which it is located”, and consists of three components: the main social activity taking place, the people involved in it (plus the way they relate to one another), and the roles and functions of the text within this social activity −known technically in systemic functional linguistics as ‘field’, tenor and mode. The setting, on the other hand, consists immediate of the linguistic event material environment (in a sales encounter, for example, the setting is the shop or company where the event is taking place), and can be seen as a manifestation of the context, but not as the context of situation itself.
b. Context, register and genre: Martin’s perspective
Martin’s teleological perspective (1992, 1997, 2000) on genre analysis is grounded on systemic functional linguistics. In his perspective genre is defined as: “A system structured in parts, with specific means to specific ends. Considering that teleology sees “the world as a system of relationships between means and ends” [Novo Dicionário Aurélio da Língua Portuguesa], the stages through which a text is structured lead the user to a concluding point, and the text can be seen by the speaker/listener as incomplete if this conclusion is not reached.” (Vian Jr & Lima-Lopes, 2005: 29)As I have pointed out above, functional linguists put great emphasis on the relationship between language and context. The main contention here is that it is impossible to understand the meaning of what someone has said or written without knowing something about the context surrounding the text. And the opposite is also true: if we can understand what our interlocutor writes or says, we can also draw conclusions about the context of situation (Martin, 2001). The relation between language and context is one of ‘realization’: the text ‘realizes’ the situation and the linguistic system ‘realizes’ the culture. We must keep in mind, however, that we are referring to a semiotic and not a material relationship, that is, not a relationship of cause and effect but of semiotic construal −the culture is construed by systems of linguistic choice, while the situation is construed by patterns of language use (Halliday, 1978).
In Martin’s view (2001), register and genre are semiotic systems distinct from other semiotic systems such as language, music, dance, images, etc, in the sense that register and genre are kinds of ‘parasites’. That is, they do not have a phonology of their own, and the only way they can create meaning is by using words and structures from the semiotic system we call language, a system able to generate its own meanings without making use of resources from another one. In short, register corresponds to the context of situation, and genre to the context of culture. For Martin (2001: 155), “a genre is a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture”. Virtually everything we do involves some kind of genre. Language, in that sense, functions as the fonology of register, and both register and language function as the fonology of genre.

9. Methods:

     The paper is organized in the following sections: 1) ‘Systemic functional linguistics and language education’, where I present some basic theoretical constructs from SFL (such as the notions of metafunctions, context of situation and register) and their implications for the teaching/learning of languages, in particular second/foreign languages; 2) ‘Context, register and genre: Martin’s perspective’, which introduces Martin’s approach to genre analysis, strongly influenced by SFL and by the notions of context and register; 2.1.) ‘An analysis of a reader’s letter according to Martin’s proposal’, where I analyse the register choices and the schematic structure of a particular genre, a reader’s letter to a magazine; 3) ‘Implications of context, register and genre in language education,’ which tries to combine the SF notions of context of situation and register and Martin’s view of genre in terms of their implications for FL/SL teaching; and ‘Concluding remarks.’

10. Finding:

      From this perspective, we could say that a culture is composed of the totality of its staged and purposeful activities or social processes. Genres are functional because their overall pattern is not random or arbitrary: each genre is as it is because its structure has proved effective to achieve its purpose(s). In this sense, the structure is a facilitating convention: “the text has identifiable parts precisely because these steps enable the interactants to achieve the social purpose” (Painter, 2001: 170).
In short, genres, like language, are functional, i.e. their structure serves social purposes, especially that of enabling subjects and institutions to interact socially. In that sense, genres that function to persuade and inform are resources for social inclusion and tools for social change it is through learning and mastering such genres that individuals and organizations can produce a social impact (Painter, 2001).
From a functional perspective on language, the concept of genre can be valuable for second/ foreign language teachers because it provides a basis for a curriculum oriented to socially grounded, purposeful language activities. But in order to approapriate the socially effective genres that ‘inform and persuade’, students have to construe a linguistic system flexible enough to be adapted to the different occurrences of any genre, a task that can be made easier with the concept of register. A central theoretical point here is not simply that every text realizes three different aspects of its situational context, but that this is so “because particular areas of the language system are sensitive to particular aspects of the context” (Painter, 2001: 176). In other words, situational contexts are impacted by the overall language and cultural system, but the overall system is also influenced by local aspects of discursive events.Therefore, a functional perspective on language teaching/learning seeks to help students tobuild systematic links between contextual and linguistic parameters when using language, a goal which is facilitated by SFL’s view of language as “sets of related choices or options, each of which is called a system” (Painter, 2001: 176). Options within the various systems (e.g. mood options such as declarative, interrogative or imperative) will have implications on the lexico-grammatical structure of the text. According to Painter (2001), it is the functional relations between sociocultural processes and generic structure, and between the register variables and the metafunctional components of the linguistic system, that makes the notions of genre and register useful for language education. The notions of register and genre can be used to make students aware of the sociocultural features of the text-type that is being taught and of which linguistic choices are more likely to be made in its textualization, as well as to help teachers “to identify and focus on whatever aspect of language in use the learner needs most help with”
According to Martin, the issues related to the social aspects of genres and to the linguistic patterns linked to specific genres remain unresolved within the field of genre studies. The author sees genres as flexible structures influenced by the social interactions in which they are used, and social interactions as singular events due to the genres used and to the linguistics choices at the level of register (Vian Jr & Lima-Lopes, 2005). In this sense, register is the element that mediates the instantiation of a genre, leaving in the text structure specific traces of the situation in which it occurred (Eggins, 1994).
From this perspective, genre is seen as one of the levels of context, and the context of culture as the backdrop to the interaction, “constituting a semiotic potential [for social interactions]” (Vian Jr & Lima-Lopes, 2005: 35). The organization of semiotic plans proposed by Martin, based on a similar model presented by Halliday, is reflected in the choices made at the level of the context of situation (register) and materialized in language, since genre and register are abstract notions. This way:
“The context of culture (genre) should be seen as a more general and more abstract plan than the context of situation (register). As a consequence, while a genre is instantiated through language, this realization is mediated through the realization of the register”
(Vian Jr & Lima-Lopes, 2005: 35).

11. Conclusion :

       To sum up, one of the main contentions of this paper is that we cannot fully understand a text if we do not know something about its context. As social beings, all our interactional contexts are social, and involve people doing things with their lives (field), interacting with others (tenor) and using some communicational channel and abstraction to do so (mode). Furthermore, our social contexts involve people participating in staged, goal-oriented activities (genres). The register variables of field, tenor and mode represent the attempt of the school of systemic functional linguistics to understand and explain the distinct situational contexts in which we operate and interact. The discussions about genre represent a more recent attempt from researchers from the same linguistic school to explore the context of culture, especially in terms of language teaching/learning. Referring to the relevance of the notions of context, register and genre to language education, Christie (2004: 34-35) states that:
“A great deal has been accomplished in the space of a few years in developing a theory of language in education drawing on SFL theory. [...] The theory of register and genre gives us a principled way to identify different text types or genres and to explain their significance to young learners. [...] The fact that more work remains to be done in developing pedagogic accounts of the grammar for the use of students indicates that we have reached a new milestone in the unfolding and development of the theory. The challenge is, as always, considerable, but the intellectual resources to do the work are certainly available. The basis for development of improved models of grammar for teaching to students in school is available, and the research in determining what should be taught at what ages across the years of schooling has begun. As has always been true in the SF tradition, the work will be undertaken in partnership between theoretical and applied linguistics, for the dialogue between the two has been the source of much of the productiveness of the SFL tradition.”

Journal Review 2

1. Title : The Issue of Register-Style in Language Teaching: Analyzing Register-Style Errors of Learners of Cantonese as a Second Language

2. Author: 1. Siu-lun Lee, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
              2. Kin Wing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
              3. Kevin Chan, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

3. Journal: Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 2015, 5, 319-326

4. Publication: Published Online August 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojml
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2015.54028

5. Abstract:
   
    This paper analyzes the register-style errors of learners of Cantonese as a second language. It is a pilot study of building up learners’ corpus containing learners’ speeches and storytelling samples of about 5000 minutes. All data are collected from spontaneous speeches delivered and storytelling by 44 Cantonese L2 learners during different learning stages. The data shows examples con-taining utterances and samples with register-style errors produced by Cantonese L2 learners. Examples show violation of rules in register-style grammar by using inappropriate register-styleor mingling different levels of formality in particular language context. The research is a preliminary analysis of register-style grammar in Cantonese and discusses some implications and suggestions for teaching Cantonese as a Second Language as well as in teaching Chinese as a Second Language.

6. Goals:

    To analyze the register-style errors of learners of Cantonese as a second language.

7. Problem:

     This paper follows the sociolinguistic views in CSL to research on the issue of register-style in teaching and learning Cantonese as a second language. Cantonese is a language variety widely used in Hong Kong, Macau, Southern part of China, and with some overseas Chinese (Matthews & Yip, 1994). It has been a number of learners from different parts of the world learning Cantonese as a second language in Hong Kong (Lee, 2005). A learners’ corpus had been built to collect features of learners of Cantonese as a second language. This paper focuses particularly on the features or errors when register-style rules are ignored. Another problem when we look at language teaching, no matter second language teaching or foreign language teaching are concerned, the various sub-fields of lingusitics havedifferent pedagogical implications which affect curriculum design, textbook preparation, teaching methodology as well as the development of educational technologies nowadays. Language teaching employing structural linguists’ views focuses on the phonetics, morphophonological and syntactic rules of the target language. Language teaching adopting psycholinguistic models pays their attention to aspects related to biological aspect of language acquisition, neuroscience, cognitive science. Language teaching using sociolinguistic frameworks put the efforts in language as a tool to communicate with other interlocutors and to establish or maintain social relationships with other target language users.

8. Theories:
 
    a. Language

        Firth (1957) argued that, in order to convey meaning with a language, there are several major components namely, the phonetic function, the lexical & morphological system, the syntactic structure and the awareness of the “context of situation”. Apart from phonological, morphological and syntactic rules, Firth (1957) identified that “the function of a complete locution in the (typical) context of situation” is another important element for a language to convey meaning.
      
      b. Register-Style in Sociolinguistics

          Register and style are not new topics in linguistic studies. Halliday & Hasan (1976) pointed out that registers are “linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features—with particular values of the field, mode and tenor…” (p. 22). According to Halliday & Hasan (1976), “field” is “the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer” (p. 22). “Mode” is “the function of the text in the event, including both the channel taken by language—spoken or written, extempore or prepared” (p. 22). “Tenor” is “the type of role interaction, the set of relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved” (p. 22). These three values—field, mode and tenor—are the determining factors for the linguistic features of the text. Crystal (1985) points out that Halliday & Hasan’s “tenor” is a roughly equivalent term for “style”, which is a more specific alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity (p. 292).

9. Methods:

     All the subjects were invited to denote a conversational play or an oral presentation every week or every 2 weeks. Topics and settings of the conversational plays or presentations. All the plays and presentations were recorded and transcribed. The main reason for analyzing the conversational plays or oral presentation was that Cantonese is a spoken language and analyzing recorded oral materials was more appropriate for the research purpose. The topics and social settings of the plays and presentations were set according to different physical and social contexts. All the subjects were given 1 week to prepare the plays or presentations so that the features or errors were not ad hoc mistakes or slip of the tongue, but are systematic features recorded while they were learning the target language.The transcribed data were put into the corpus. 20 native speakers were invited to act as raters to evaluate theplays or presentation in terms of acceptability. The 20 native speakers were asked to rate the utterances in a 5-point Likert scale by judging whether the utterances were “grammatical”, “acceptable” and “appropriate”. Interviews were conducted with the native speaker raters to elicit a detailed account concerning their rating and perceptions towards the utterances. Similar research methodology was adopted by Corder (1967) to study language acquisition of L2 learners. The 20 native speakers raters were educated adults who were university students and were randomly selected from the university population in Hong Kong.

10. Finding:
      
       In the learners’ corpus, two types of errors had been identified. The first type of errors was “discourse-context mismatch”. Context here meant the physical and social contexts (Thomas, 1995). In our data, it is discovered that learners sometimes cannot use their language or do not have the awareness to the pragmatic use of the target language according to the formality of the physical and social contexts. Examples of using consistently informal or causal expressions in formal settings or using overly formal expressions in casual settings are regarded as odd and inappropriate by native speakers. This kind of errors exist because of the lack of ability or awareness to use the target language appropriately according to different physical and social contexts. For the second type of errors, we would call it “mingling”. This type of error occurred when a learner employed both formal and informal expressions within the same sentence, in the same utterance or in the same connected discourse. Native speakers regarded this type of errors unacceptable, no matter it appeared understand whatever physical and social contexts. The second type of errors has some theoretical implications.In example (1) below, the conversation setting was “talking to your friends in a casual dinner. The learner used informal elements like 你哋都識架 “you all know (him)”, 佢係邊個 “who he is”, 師奶 “housewife (casual)” etc. together with a formal lexicon 猜測 “to speculate” instead of informal synonyms like 估. Native speaker raters commented that the utterance was inappropriate and unacceptable and they pointed out that. 猜測“to speculate” did not match with other components within the same sentence.
Then the research data in our study indicates that learners lack the ability or the awareness of appropriateness and language use in different physical and social contexts. The lacking of such awarenes may result in difficulties for learners to use the language effectively in real world situations. In order to train learners with such ability or awareness, suitable teaching methodology, curriuclum design and teaching materials should be developed. In the field of teaching Cantonse as a second language, traditional teaching materials are based on developing grammatical competence (Chao, 1968; Huang & Kok, 1973; Lau, 1975). There is also a lack of theoretical framework concerning register-style grammar in Cantonese. Although the issue of formality in Cantonese has been addressed in some previous studies on Cantonese grammar (Matthews & Yip, 1994), detailed theoretical analysis on the issue of register-style issue is lacking. One important aims of our attempts to analyze the register-style errors appeared in L2 Cantonese learners’ utterances is to draw the attention of scholars that register-style is important not only in the teaching of Cantonese as a second language, but also worth to study from a theoretical perspective. Our study ponits out that there are relationship between prosodic features and level of formality in Cantonese.

11. Conclusion :

       Foreign language teaching is not satisfied merely in grammatical competence, but put a lot of emphasis on the pragmatic use of the target language.There are still room for further research on teaching materials, teaching methodology and curriculum design in the field.  The choice of lexical items is another factor that affects the level of formality of utterances in Cantonese. There may be other linguistic factors, such as word order, etc that could affect level of formality. We would like to do follow-up research to explore the issue further in the near future.

Journal review 1

[Journal Review 1]

1. Title     : Register and Style as Distinct and ‘Functional’ Varieties of Language.

2. Author :  Obins Nuhu Isaac, College of Agricultural Technology, Samaru Kataf, Kaduna State.

3. Journal: Research on Humanities and Social Sciences.

4. Publication: Vol.4, No.14, 2014.

5. Abstract:
    This paper assesses the relationship between register and style, the prominent differences between them and how both are responsible for sociolinguistic context. It further argues that register and style in relation to context are ‘functional’ manifestations or varieties of a given language since they usually mark the changes that occur in language as a result of immediate sociolinguistic ‘necessities’ over and above the traditional dialectal and social varieties. Language users are usually more conscious of their ‘immediate’ linguistic environments (contexts) in terms of communication goals than they usually are of their ‘remote’ regional or social background and this informs a selection of ‘appropriate’ linguistic items to adjust as it were to those language situations or demands.

6. Goals:
    This paper assesses the relationship between register and style, the prominent differences between them and how both are responsible for sociolinguistic context.

7. Problem:
    There are different manifestations of language as a phenomenon or as a “specific”, to use Ballard’s term.Since register and style (situated in context) operate within the same socio-cultural domain, it becomes imperative to distinguish between the two.

8. Theories:

    a. Varieties of Language

        The term ‘variety’ according to Hudson can be applied to the different manifestations of language as a phenomenon or as a “specific”, to use Ballard’s term. Hudson defines a variety of language as “a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution” (24). This definition, as he notes, merges the ‘specific forms’ like English and French with their ‘manifestations’ thus giving them equal status. This obvious ‘merger’ is no doubt responsible for his claim that varieties do not exist after all since there are no clear ways to delimit them. According to him, “all that exists [sic] are people and items, and people may be more or less similar to one another in the items they have in their language” (40).

      b. Register

          Register is the collective term for various situational and functional aspects of a text. In other words, register is the sum of a text’s subject matter, its purpose, its mode (essentially, spoken or written), its genre (the type of text it is) and the relationship that exists between its participants (namely, the writer or speaker and the audience). These factors all work together to influence the choices language users make when constructing discourse (181).

     c. Style
       
         Style as a linguistic concept is very flexible and dynamic undoubtedly due to its “potential for diverse application” (Azuike, 77). Thus, it has been a subject of different ascriptions and characterizations. Azuike provides six broad theoretical sub-headings under which the concept has been characterized namely: “(1) a deviation from a norm; (2) a manifestation of the individual; (3) content and/or form; (4) choice between alternative ways of expressing the same idea; (5) product of context; (6) and simply as good or beautiful writing” (111). Style as product of context is the sub-categorization that is closely knitted to register and therefore receives the emphasis in this paper. Since register and style (situated in context) operate within the same socio-cultural domain, it becomesimperative to distinguish between the two. Hudson passively suggests that “‘style’ is sometimes used instead of[Halliday’s] ‘tenor’ – an aspect of register which “depends on the relations between participants” (49). He however advises against such use since, according to him, “‘style’ is used in a lay sense to mean roughly the same as ‘register’” (49). Hudson in one sense makes style a ‘subset’ of register by characterizing it as ‘tenor’ and another sense makes the two of equal status. Register and style are however distinct in practical applications in sociolinguistic contexts.

     d. The Formality Scale

         Since register influences manner of expression, a speaker or writer usually switches between formal and informal speech forms in order to ‘adapt’ to different linguistic contexts basically for the purpose of linguistic appropriateness. Yule provides a further insight into this linguistic flexibility:
Formal style is when we pay more careful attention to how we’re speaking and informal style is when we pay less attention. They are sometimes described as ‘careful style’ and ‘casual style’. A change from one to the other by an individual is called style-shifting (208). Yule however limits his assessment of formality to ‘speaking’ even though it is also applicable in writing and this is no doubt informed by his characterization of style as “speech style”. He further provides two broad categories to include ‘careful’ and ‘casual’ which Joos elaborated into five styles or manners of expression in spoken English – frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.
1. Frozen – an extremely formal, printed, unchanging language such as biblical quotations. It often contains archaisms.
2. Formal – a one-way participation which usually involves no interruptions. It also involves the use of technical vocabulary or jargon. “Fuzzy semantics” or exact definitions are important. Strangers usually introduce themselves in this context.
3. Consultative – a two-way participation in which background information is provided. A prior knowledge is not usually assumed. “Back-channel behaviour” such as “uh huh”, “I see” etc. is common and interruptions are allowed.
4. Casual – a colloquial style used among friends and acquaintances. Provision of background information is not necessary and ellipsis (contractions) and slang are common. Interruptions are also a common feature of the casual style.
5. Intimate – an extremely informal and non-public communication style in which intonation says more than words or grammar. It also has a private vocabulary. Source: Wikipedia/register (sociolinguistics). Some of the distinguishing features of formal and informal styles in English are summarized below:
Formal:
- More of complex, longer sentences
- Avoidance of contractions and abbreviations
- Use of passive voice
- More ‘educated’ and Latinate words with a low frequency vocabulary
- Avoidance of the imperative form
- Use of single-word verbs.

Informal:
- Short words and sentences
- Contractions and abbreviations
- Colloquial language, Anglo Saxon or Germanic words - Phrasal verbs ( multi-word or multi-part verbs)
- May use the imperative form.

9. Methods:
    The author looks at variety from a perspective of ‘form’ in her categorization of English “as a specific language” (8). English in her view is “specific” when compared to the French language or the German language. But, as she observes, studying English only as a specific form of language is not holistic since it (English) “can take different forms” or varieties (8). She adds that …the English spoken in America varies in several ways from the English spoken in Britain. And within Britain, there are many regional variations in the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar of English, just as there are many variations in America (8). The author not only identifies the two dominant manifestations of English, which are, the British and the American, but also recognizes other ‘many regional variations’ in both places. The author notes, merges the ‘specific forms’ like English and French with their ‘manifestations’ thus giving them equal status. This obvious ‘merger’ is no doubt responsible for his claim that varieties do not exist after all since there are no clear ways to delimit them . Then the last is the author characterizes dialect as “a subordinate variety of a language”.

10. Finding:
      From this array of ‘stylistic’ characterizations, it is clear that register and style do not have the same application. Register often determines the appropriate speech style that is applicable in any given speech event. Style is a manner of expressing both the familiar and the unfamiliar linguistic items by a language user in discourse. As Azuike puts it, “style is deemed to be conditioned by the sociocultural factors which influence the making of an utterance, whether written or spoken” (119). The “sociocultural factors” are what constitute register or sociolinguistic context.
There is another but subtle distinction between these two categories. While register is generally and sometimes strictly evaluated in terms of vocabulary, style can be assessed at the levels of vocabulary, syntax and pronunciation.

11. Conclusion :
       Context greatly contributes to language variation in sociolinguistics in much the same way as it contributes to meaning in pragmatics. Register and style are the major constituents of sociolinguistic context and determine how language users employ the linguistic items at their disposal, whether in consideration of the subject matter, the constitution of the audience, the means of presentation or the manner of expression. These sociolinguistic varieties of language do not however overlap in terms of definition. Different styles or registers are therefore considered ‘functional’ varieties of language since they are informed by sociolinguistic ‘necessities’.

Article

STYLE, CONTEXT AND REGISTER

1. Addressee as an Influence on Style.
    Addressee is the way people call someone when they are talking to others and this varies according to their education, their profession or their social class. It also can be determined by their nationality or their ethnicity. The addressee affects our choice of code and variety. If we are already familiar or more closely with particular person or people, then the style of language used tends to be more relaxed. Conversely, when we talk to people who have not been too well known, then the style that we use will be more regular and formal.

Many factors may contribute in determining social distance, solidarity between people related age, gender, social rule, whether people together, or are part of the same family and so on. The explanation of language variation are as follows:

        a. Age of Addressee
People generally talk differently to children and adult, though some adjust their speech style or accommodate more than others. When talking to a child, the grammatical structure of language and style used tend to be more easily understood, the composition used grammatical even simpler. In contrast, when speaking to adults, then the sentence and grammatical structure that is used will be more complex. Also, the vocabularies are different both of those ages. It uses simple and understandable vocabulary for children and high vocabulary for adult.

        b. Social Background of Addressee
The social context affects the choice of forms of address, which are used between people for communicative purposes, or when the addressor wants to attract the attention of the interlocutor, or when communicators want to establish their personal social position in relation to the addressees. (Evans-Pritchard: 1929; Evans-Pritchard: 1964).
Language variation with respect to status, class, and social class of speakers. Variations of this language regarding all personal problems of the speakers, such as age, education, gender, occupation, level of nobility, socioeconomic circumstances, etc. For example, the style of the language we use to ordinary people who were in the streets, in contrast to the way we talk to people who have higher education.
Social intimacy and social distance between members of a speech community vary according to such features as age, sex, social class, and social roles. Terms of address used between people who work together, or who are members of the same family, or who belong to the same social class are not similar to those used with others. These terms identify both participants to the speech event. Terms of address correspond to the individual’s own characteristics. Since forms of address reflect complex social networks, local speech community does not consider naming a person as an arbitrary process of identification, but rather as a means of identifying the social background of the person named. First and full official names, for instance, are considered as address forms, since they enable speakers to identify their interlocutors, or to be identified.

2. Accommodation Theory
    Accommodation theory is a theory about how to adjust when communicating between speaker and listener. As for effects, ways and problems in communication, including:
    a.    Speech Convergence
The example in the previous section has demonstrated that when people talk to each other their speech often becomes more similar. In other words, each person speech converges towards the speech of the person they are talking to. This process is called speech accommodation. It tends to happen when the speakers like one other, or where one speaker has a vested interest in pleasing the other or putting them at ease. So the travel agent wanted to gain her customers orders, and the interviewer wanted to gain his interviewers cooperation.
Converging towards the speech of another person is usually a polite speech strategy. It implies that the addressee’s speech is acceptable and worth imitating. Using the same pronunciation and the same sort of vocabulary, for instance, is a way of signaling that you are on the same wavelength.  
The previous example shows that when people talk to each other their conversations often become more similar. In other words, when communicating, everyone is united with the conversation of the person they are talking to. This process is called speech accommodation.
The meaning of speech convergence is the effect which the current talks, the listener can catch the messages conveyed by the speaker. In other words, speech convergence is another word for communication disjointed no missed communication. To get the speech convergence, between speaker and listener must have shared the same knowledge.
Example: When P1 (speaker) spoke to P2 (listener) about "Mega mind". If P1 or P2 alone who has the concept of Mega mind, then when speak about Mega mind, will not be convergence.

    b    Speakers Accommodate
At the party when you respond to and develop a topic introduced by your addressee, you are converging in the content of your speech. When people simplify their vocabulary and grammar in talking to foreigners or children, they are converging downwards towards the lesser linguistic proficiency of their addressees. When a complicated technical message is ‘translated’ for the benefit of someone who does not know the jargon, speech accommodation is involved. When, in an interview with the hospital matron, a nurse adopts some of the matron’s pronunciation features, she is converging upwards in her speech. 
The way speakers to match the language with the capability to whom listener. So that the intended message or meaning that can be accepted by listener and missed communication does not occur in the talks. So the speaker must be well-adjusted when communicating with listener. For example, in the state - a multilingual country, like Singapore, India or Zaire, with variations language, people there choose a language that is comfortable to use when communicating with its addressee.

    c.    Speech Divergence
Speech divergence is the effect where when making conversation, the listener cannot grasp the significance, meaning or message of the speaker. So there is no convergence of communication in the conversation and lead to missed communication.
Example: When the speaker talks about "Joger", listener did not knowing what it jogger, with the circumstances, the divergence of their communication.

    d.    Accommodation Problems
There are several examples of problems in communication, including missed communication. Circumstances where the message of the speakers can not be captured by listener for not having shared the same knowledge and concepts. If the case is not disconnected communication occurs in the text or spoken conversation, the listener can ask the speaker, how to convey your message in it. But if the case of incoherent communication occurs in a written text for example when we read the book, then to find the content of the message intended by the writer is to look for shared knowledge by searching on the internet or reading books.

3.  Context, Style and Class
    a.    Context
The language context in English is same with language context in Indonesia.
Example:
Yesterday in the wellington district court….the all black captain, Jock Hobbs, appeared as duty solicitor. Presiding was his father, Judge M.F Hobbs.
Etiquette required Mr. Hobbs to address his father young honour, or sir, and the beach had to address counsel as Mr. Hobbs.
(Mr. Hobbs) could not remember the last time he had to call his father sir, said the father to son, when the son announced his appearance on all matters as duty solicitor: “I appropriate the difficulties you are labouring under, Mr. Hobbs.
People who were very close to her used a short form of her first name (Meg), or an endearment. People who were less close and socially subordinate used her title and last name (Mrs. Walker). In the example, the choice of appropriate form is influenced not by personal relationship between the participants, but by the formality of the context and their relative roles and situates within that setting.
A law court is a formal setting where the social rules of participants over ride their personal relationship in determining the appropriate linguistics form. In classroom where a child’s mother or father is the teacher, the same pattern is usually found. Children call their parents Mrs. Grady and Mr. Davis rather than Mom and Dad. A catholic priest will be addressed as Father even by his own father during a religious ceremony. People’s rules in these formal contexts determine the appropriate speech form.
Example:
Judge               : I see the cops say you were pickled last night and were driving an old jalopy down the middle of the road. True?
Defendant        : Your honour, if I might be permitted to address this allegation, I should like to report that I was neither inebriated nor under the influence of an alcoholic beverage of any kind.
The formal and Latinate vocabulary appropriate to very formal setting inebriated, alcoholic, beverage, and allegation - contrast with the inappropriately informal vocabulary used here for humorous effect. Words such as pickled and jalopy are heard much more casual contexts.
        b. Style
~  Definition of style
According to Janet Holmes, 2001 the definitions of style are:
1.      Style is language variation which reflects changes in situational factors, such as addressee, setting, task or topic.
2.      Style is often analyzed along scale of formality.
3.      The level of formality is influenced by some factors like the various differences among the participants, topic, emotional, involvement, etc.
~     Addressee as an influence on style
·         Age of addressee
People generally talk to very young and to the very old.
·         Social background of addressee
People talk differently to the higher class and to the lower class.
        Class
Language can show the class of someone in the society. High class people are people who have high education, politeness, important people, or maybe sometimes they are rich people. Besides, low class people are opposite it. People who have high class will different with people who have low class in their language. For example:
         In Indonesia
Example:
        When someone shows what he wants to do in the restroom to his friend.
Low Class                   : “Jack, Saya sakit perut nih ingin Berak”
High Class                   : “Jack, saya sakit perut nih ingin Buang air besar”
        High class people speak polite than low class and it is better to be heard.
         In English
Example:
      There is a person in a Hotel, he wants to go to the restroom but he does not know where is it and he asks someone the direct to there.
High Class             : “excuse me, would you like to show me the direction to go restroom?”
Low Class             : “excuse me, would you like to show me the direction to go to toilet?”
            The dialogue seems same each other because use formal language, but the diction shows their class naturally. High class people call “restroom” for water closet but low class people call “toilet” for it.

4. Register
    Register is the language used at any given moment; and depend on: what do you do, by whom and by what means. Register indicates the type of social process is going on.
Registers can simply be described as variations of the language according to its use, while the dialect as a language variation based on users registers on this concept is not limited to the choice of words (such as the notion registers in the traditional theory) but also includes the choice of the use of text structure, and texture: cohesion and teksikogramatical , as well as phonology or graphology choice. Because the register covers all aspects of language or linguistic choices, many linguists refer to registers as a style or a style of language. Variations in language choice of the register depend on the context of the situation, which includes three variables: field (domain), tenor (context) and mode (infrastructure) which works simultaneously to form a configuration or configures contextual meaning.
      a.  How to study Register?
In their book Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Register, Douglas Biber and Edward Finegan provide an analytic framework to follow when studying register.  Biber begins with his definition of register as being “a general cover term for all language varieties associated with different situations and purposes” (32).  The framework should include and distinguish between characteristics of linguistic and non-linguistic factors and should use these differences for a classification of register
In The communicative characteristics of participants involved in the situation taking place must be taken into consideration, beginning with the addressor(s), which can be the writer or speaker.  This will be a singular person; several people, as in a co-authored work; or institutional, as in departmental or government document.  The addressee(s) will be singular, as in a dyadic conversation or a letter; plural, as in a classroom; or unremunerated, such as in a novel or a magazine.  Next, we must examine the relations between the addressor and addressee, taking into account the social role each participant maintains. Age, occupation, and shared knowledge, whether on the topic and/or personal background, all play important parts in determining this relationship.  In regards to relative status and power, it is necessary to determine which one has the most power or if they share an equal status.
When and where the communication takes place is referred to as setting.  Biber identifies settings with a particular context of use or domain.  He distinguishes six primary domains: “Business and workplace, education and academic, government and legal, religious, art and entertainment and domestic/personal” (43).  Within each of these areas, there exists a public and a private setting.  Technology such as TV, radio, or any type of mass media can be used to represent or present these domains. It must be taken into account that a difference among registers may arise when the time of communication and place are shared, as in direct conversation in the presence of each other.  Participants can share time and be familiar with, but not actually share place, as in a telephone conversation.
And also, how the addressor presents the information and how the addressee receives it should also be considered. Another factor important in differentiating among registers is the different purposes, intents, and goals of the addressor.  At one extreme are registers that attempt to explain or describe facts.  At the other end of the spectrum are registers that are completely fictional or overtly imaginative.  Between these two extremes are a variety of registers such as position papers, historical fiction, editorials, philosophical arguments, and theoretical position papers.  As for purpose, Biber characterizes it along four parameters: “‘persuade’ (or sell), ‘transfer information’, ‘entertain’ (or edify), and reveal self".
Lastly, the topic or subject being discussed--whether popular, generalized, or specialized--needs to be considered.  If the subject is specialized, it must be noted accordingly, examples being science, finances, politics, sports, and law.

        b. Some Types of Registers
~Formal Register: A type of register that incorporates Standard American English and is used by professionals or in situations where people are not familiar with one another.
~Informal Register: A type of register used with more familiar people in casual conversation.  In the informal style of register, contractions are used more often, rules of negation and agreement may be altered, and slang or colloquialisms may be used.  Informal register also permits certain abbreviations and deletions, but they are rule governed.  For example, deleting the "you" subject and the auxiliary often shorten questions.  Instead of asking, "Are you running in the marathon," a person might ask, "Running the marathon?"
~Over-formal Register: A type of register that can be characterized by the use of a false high-pitched nasal voice.  For example, a woman might approach another woman whom she does not really like and ask her cordially in a high-pitched voice, "How are you doing?"
Motherese: A type of register characterized by high-pitched, elongated sounds and "sing-song" intonation.  It is used when people speak to infants, young children, or pets.
~Reporting Register: A type of register characterized by easily observable verbal and non-verbal cues:  flat intonation, rapid rate of speech, relatively low pitch, absence of marked facial expressions, and gestures.

Conclusion :

           People’s speech reflects not only aspects of their identity such as their ethnicity, age, gender, and social background; it also reflects the contexts in which they are using the language. The way people talk in court, in school, at business meetings and at graduation ceremonies reflect the formality of those context and the social roles people take in them.
Style, Context and Register is continuity. So, if we only discuss one of them, such as Context or Style, the understanding will not occur. Automatically, it can be seen the context and style registers in the talks. Actually, the understanding about the context and style has already in our activity, so we have just improved it well by learning from the environment and education. Variations in language, which is a variation of the diversity of backgrounds and languages. So, people will absorb the language of others who are considered attractive, but still within the scope of understanding.

REFERENCES

Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman.
Hunt, Ellen. Register. Available at:​http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/1914-/language/register/register.htm​. Accessed on 31 December 2019.
Kirana, Nanda. LCS – Addressee. Available at: http://www.scribd.com/doc/45680599/LCS-Addressee​. Accessed on 31 December 2019.
Kushartanti, Untung Yuwono. 2007. Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistic. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Umum.

Maharani, Made Ayu Winda. 2011. Style, Context and Register. Available at:
http://madeaiu-winda.blogspot.com/2011/04/style-context-and-register.html​. Accessed on 31 December 2019.

WORLD IS NOT THAT DIRTY

                 Are you afraid of being dirty? Do you see that this world is full of germs and bacteria? If so, maybe you are a mysophobic. Mysophobic is a person who suffers mysophobia. Mysophobia is excessive fear of germs and bacteria. People with mysophobia usually hate being in a dirty places, often wash their hands, avoiding physical contact with other people, avoiding sharing goods or food with other people and etc. Even if Mysophobia people live their life to its cleanest, living in too hygine world also bad. Because in too hygine area, strong germs and bacteria can easily come and cause some diseases. Therefor mysophobia people have to open their life, try to go to the therapist, face the fear and realize that world is not that dirt. We just life once so enjoy our life.

WORLD IS NOT THAT DIRTY.

                 Are you afraid of being dirty? Do you see that this world is full of germs and bacteria? If so, maybe you are a mysophobic. Mysophobic is a person who suffers mysophobia. Mysophobia is excessive fear of germs and bacteria. People with mysophobia usually hate being in a dirty places, often wash their hands, avoiding physical contact with other people, avoiding sharing goods or food with other people and etc. Even if Mysophobia people live their life to its cleanest, living in too hygine world also bad. Because in too hygine area, strong germs and bacteria can easily come and cause some diseases. Therefor mysophobia people have to open their life, try to go to the therapist, face the fear and realize that world is not that dirt. We just life once so enjoy our life.

Reflection

1. My interest in learning English especially in writing is writing a story. I love writing my idea in paper or type it in writing story apps, for example wattpad, storial, etc. I boost my vocabulary by writing a story. Whenever I want to write a certain word and I don’t know what is the English of that word, I will curious to search the English of that word. Therefor it easier for me to memorize the words.
I prefer write something based on my imagination than write anything else. I love to write a fantasy novel. I already started to write a novel, but my only problem is lazy. Sometimes when I feel like my brain full of idea but in other side my body is too lazy just to write or type it somewhere. So it is still to be a dilemma for me.
2. According to me, Project Based Learning is quite exciting. I enjoy the projects and it make me try something that I never try before, for example sending a postcard. And the project is simple and flexible too. So when I doing it, what I feel is just enjoy. Fells like I did the projects based on my own desire not by it is an assignments.
And by using blog, it is recall my old blog from its hibernation. I don’t open my blog since I was in Junior High School. I surprised when I opened back my blog and found my old diary on it. I read every single sentences and laughed for almost every minutes. By this Project Based Learning it is raise my motivation to continue my diary or post anything else on my blog because I want to record the memories of my life. And who knows if I get bored again of blog I will feel a little surprise again when I open it back.
3. The advantages of doing Project Based Learning is first, it made me had a new friend from abroad. It was from chatting with native speaker project. The project was not only made me understand about informal chat, but it is also increase my knowledge about my new abroad friend’s country (Japan) especially about their culture. The project was fun and who knows that chatting also can be used to fulfil an assignment.
The second advantages is by writing email project I get a lot of information out there about scholarships, student exchange program and competitions. Previously I thought that I would search that’s kind of information when I’m in second or third semester. Because as far I know usually the requirement need third semester mark. But then I realize that it’s better if I start to complete the requirements from now. Thanks for email writing project for make me understand how write an email correctly and make me prepare my requirements to apply for a scholarship earlier.
The third advantage I got was from vlog script project which is the last but not least project in the semester. I can say that this is my favourite project because I love making a vlog and this project make me try something new. I never do script before I record my vlog previously, but after this project I think make a script is not a bad idea because the script make the concept in my brain seems clearer.
4. The challenges in doing Project Based Learning are found by me in my first project, my second project and my last project. In my first project which is formal chat, Ms Devi asked me to sent a formal message with correct grammar, punctuation and etc. Because it is my first time I was a little bit confuse to write the message. After I tried and sent my formal message to Ms.Devi the result was I had to revise my message because of my punctuation was not correct. After I tried once again finally I could fulfill my first project correctly.
            My second challenge in doing Project Based Learning was in my second project which is Informal chat or chatting foreigner. Backthen I had some friends from India, china and US. But I can't contact all of them so I had to find another person. Finally I found a person via instagram, she is from Japan and luckily she answered my direct message although her follower already so much. Our chat was so good and finally I could fulfill my second project. The challenge was only to find another new person who I never know before.
            My last challenge in doing this Project Based Learning was in my last project which is vlog script project. This kind of project was really new for me and I don't know about how to write it correctly before,. especially about the punctuation. But then after I saw the example from Ms. Devi, I became more understand and my project already done right now. But the problem is I don't know the result and I just posted it in my blog.
5.       My impression to Ms. Devi is she is one of my lecture who are not out of date. I mean her style in teaching us is really match us as millenias. That's why projects from her are so in to us and personally I enjoyed every project from Ms. Devi. And Ms. Devi also veru friendly and what I like her the most when she is not angry when our project are not posted yet or when we do not do feedbacking yet.
          Ms. Devi never blame us but she always give us advice in friendly way. The way she explain the material also simple and understandable. I know the theory from her, but with the project I to be more understand. I like it too when Ms. Desi provide such a simple and clear examples. Because examples is important to show how is the comcept. Overall I have no problem with the way Ms. Devi teach us.
6.        My overall impression towards this Project Based Learning is this project are enjoyable. According to me, the projects were friendly, not too hard and it was not too easy. From this projects I learn a lot of things about writing. Therefor I think this projects are success for myself.
           About whether I will continue my blog or not, I think I will continue it but with no certain time to post. I will post somehing that really match my interest. But my frequency of posting will not too often. At least I'm not abandon my blog for the second time.